Unit 1. Design of Qualitative Research

1.1. The design of Qualitative Research

The passage discusses the importance and design of qualitative research. Qualitative research is a well-established field that requires researchers to stay updated with the literature, research publications, conferences, and interest groups in order to keep up with developments. The passage emphasizes the need for researchers to have a genuine interest in their field and a desire to improve their practice, which leads to asking researchable questions and conducting qualitative research.

The passage suggests that qualitative research aims to understand problems or topics from the perspectives of the local population involved. It highlights the strength of qualitative research in providing complex textual descriptions of people’s experiences, beliefs, emotions, opinions, and social factors. However, it also acknowledges that qualitative research alone may not provide a comprehensive understanding and suggests using it in conjunction with quantitative methods for a better interpretation of complex situations.

The passage briefly mentions three common qualitative research methods: participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Each method is suited for obtaining specific types of data, such as observing behaviors in natural contexts, collecting personal histories and experiences, or exploring cultural norms of a group.

Qualitative data can take various forms, including field notes, audio or video recordings, and transcripts.

这段文字讨论了定性研究的重要性和设计。定性研究是一个成熟的领域，研究人员需要及时了解文献、研究杂志、兴趣组和会议，以跟上发展的步伐。文章强调研究人员对自己领域的真正兴趣和改进实践的愿望的重要性，这导致提出可研究的问题并进行定性研究。

文章指出，定性研究旨在从当地人口的角度理解问题或主题。它强调了定性研究在提供人们经验、信念、情感、观点和社会因素等复杂文本描述方面的优势。然而，文章也承认单纯的定性研究可能无法提供全面的理解，建议与定量方法结合使用，以更好地解释复杂情况。

文章简要提到了三种常见的定性研究方法：参与观察、深度访谈和焦点小组。每种方法都适用于获取特定类型的数据，例如在自然环境中观察行为、收集个人历史和经验，或探索群体的文化规范。

定性数据可以采用各种形式，包括实地笔记、音频或视频记录和文字转录。

1.2. Where does Qualitative Research come from?

Qualitative research has its roots in the investigations conducted by anthropologists and sociologists, who explored people’s lives, social and cultural contexts, and their understanding of the world. These early qualitative studies involved fieldwork, interviews, and analysis of relevant documents. The development of qualitative research was significantly influenced by publications such as “The Discovery of Grounded Theory” in 1967 and “Towards a Methodology of Naturalistic Inquiry in Educational Evaluation” in 1978. These works introduced inductive analysis and the concept of naturalistic analysis, respectively. Over time, researchers from various disciplines embraced qualitative methods, leading to the establishment of discipline-specific journals and conferences dedicated to qualitative research. Today, qualitative research is widely disseminated through books, articles, and conferences.

定性研究源于人类学家和社会学家的调查研究，他们探索人们的生活、社会和文化背景，以及他们对世界的理解。这些早期的定性研究包括实地调查、访谈和相关文件的分析。定性研究的发展受到了一些重要出版物的显著影响，如1967年的《发现有根理论：定性研究策略》和1978年的《教育评估中自然主义调查方法论》。这些作品分别引入了归纳分析和自然主义分析的概念。随着时间的推移，来自不同学科的研究者开始采用定性方法，导致了专业期刊和专门致力于定性研究的会议的建立。如今，定性研究通过书籍、文章和会议广泛传播。

1.3. Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative research focuses on confirming hypotheses, using rigid instruments and structured methods to quantify variation, predict causal relationships, and describe population characteristics. It collects numerical data and follows a stable study design. In contrast, qualitative research seeks to explore phenomena, employing flexible instruments and methods to describe and explain relationships, individual experiences, and group norms. It collects textual data through open-ended questions and allows for participant responses to shape the research direction. Qualitative research aims to understand how people interpret their experiences and construct meaning, using words as data.

定量研究着重于确认假设，采用严格的工具和结构化方法来量化变异、预测因果关系，描述人群特征。它收集数值数据并遵循稳定的研究设计。相反，定性研究旨在探索现象，使用灵活的工具和方法描述和解释关系、个体经验和群体规范。它通过开放式问题收集文本数据，并允许参与者的回答塑造研究方向。定性研究旨在理解人们如何解释他们的经历和构建意义，使用词语作为数据。

1.4. Characteristics of Qualitative Research

1.4.1. Focus on Meaning and Understanding

Qualitative research focuses on understanding the interpretation, construction, and meaning-making of people’s experiences. Its primary goal is to comprehend how individuals make sense of their lives and describe their own understanding of their experiences. The emphasis is on capturing the participants’ perspective, known as the emic or insider’s perspective, rather than the researcher’s viewpoint, referred to as the etic or outsider’s perspective.

定性研究关注于对人们经历的解释、他们对世界的构建以及他们赋予经历的意义。因此，定性研究的总体目的是理解人们如何理解他们的生活，他们如何构建意义，并描述他们如何解释他们的经历。一些作者（Patton, 1985; Bohannan, 1992）遵循这种思路，提出了包含这种理解观点的定性研究定义。 然而，重要的是要区分参与者的观点与研究者的观点。这通常被称为内部视角（emic）与外部视角（etic）之间的区别。

1.4.2. Researcher as Primary Instrument

In qualitative research, the researcher serves as the primary instrument for data collection and analysis. This allows for immediate response and adaptation, as well as the ability to observe and interpret nonverbal cues. The researcher can also explore unexpected responses and gain a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences. However, the subjective nature of human instruments can introduce biases and limitations. It is crucial for researchers to acknowledge and address their own biases, monitoring how they may impact data collection and interpretation. While subjectivity is not the main focus of qualitative studies, researchers should be aware of their potential influences.

在定性研究中，研究者是数据收集和分析的主要工具。然而，这一特点可能带来积极和消极的影响。首先，由于研究的目标是理解，需要一个能够立即回应和适应的人类工具来收集和分析数据。此外，研究者能够通过关注非语言和语言交流、即时处理信息、澄清和总结材料、检查回答以准确解释，并且能够探索不寻常或意外的回答，从而扩展对研究对象的理解。

然而，考虑到人类工具的特性，我们会意识到可能存在一些缺点和偏见，这可能会干扰研究结果。这就是任何人类工具的主观性。在这种情况下，重要的是识别和监测这些偏见或“主观性”，以清楚地说明它们可能如何影响数据的收集和解释。尽管主观性不是大多数定性研究的重点，但研究人员需要处理自己潜在的影响。

1.4.3. An Inductive Process

One important characteristic of qualitative research is its inductive process. Qualitative researchers collect data to build concepts, hypotheses, or theories, rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. They observe and intuitively understand phenomena in the field, allowing theory to emerge from the data. This approach is used when existing theories fail to adequately explain a particular issue or phenomenon.

定性研究的另一个重要特点是归纳性过程。逻辑上讲，进行研究是因为缺乏能够涵盖问题或现象的理论，或者现有理论未能以适当的方式解释它。因此，定性研究的一个重要特点是过程是归纳性的。这意味着研究者通过收集数据来构建概念、假设或理论，而不是测试假设。这种类型的研究是基于从实地观察和直觉理解中建立理论。当现有理论不能充分解释特定问题或现象时，就会采用这种方法。

1.4.4. Rich description

Qualitative research produces rich descriptions using words and visuals instead of numbers. The results provide detailed descriptions of various aspects related to the research, including the context, participants, and activities. All collected data is typically included to support the study’s findings.

定性研究的结果具有丰富的描述性。研究者使用文字和图像来传达他们对现象的理解，而不是使用数字。结果通常是对研究中涉及的各个方面的描述，包括背景环境、参与者和活动等。研究过程中收集的所有数据通常都会被包括在内，以支持研究的发现。

1.4.5. Other Characteristics and Competencies

Qualitative research is characterized by its emergent and flexible nature, nonrandom and purposeful sample selection, and extensive time spent in the natural setting. Researchers in qualitative studies need to possess competencies such as a high tolerance for ambiguity, careful observation skills, the ability to ask good questions, inductive thinking, and comfort with writing reports. These competencies are essential for effectively conducting qualitative research and presenting the findings in a comprehensive manner.

定性研究的特点包括其不断涌现和灵活性，非随机和有目的性的样本选择，以及在自然环境中投入大量时间。定性研究的研究者需要具备一定的能力，如对模糊性的高容忍度，细致的观察技巧，善于提出问题，归纳思维能力和撰写报告的能力。这些能力对于有效进行定性研究并以全面的方式呈现研究结果至关重要。

1.5. Six Common Qualitative Research Designs

There are various approaches and designs within qualitative research, with authors proposing different classifications. Six common qualitative research designs include basic qualitative research, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, narrative analysis, and qualitative case study. These designs share common attributes but have distinct focuses and variations in research question formulation, sample selection, data collection and analysis, and reporting. Researchers may also combine multiple designs, such as in an ethnographic case study.

在定性研究中，存在着各种不同的方法和设计，不同的作者提出了不同的分类方式。其中六种常见的定性研究设计包括基础定性研究、现象学、扎根理论、民族志学、叙事分析和定性案例研究。这些设计具有共同的特点，但在研究问题的制定、样本选择、数据收集和分析以及报告方面存在着不同的重点和变化。研究者也可以结合多种设计，例如在民族志案例研究中。

1.5.1. Basic Qualitative Research

Basic qualitative research is the most common type of qualitative research in applied fields such as education, administration, health, social work, counseling, and business. It is characterized by a constructivist approach, where researchers aim to understand the meaning a phenomenon holds for those involved in it. The focus is on how individuals interpret their experiences, construct their world, and attribute meaning to their experiences. Data collection methods include interviews, observations, and document analysis. The analysis involves identifying recurrent patterns in the data, and the interpretation is based on the researcher’s understanding of the participants’ perspectives. The main goal of basic qualitative research is to uncover and interpret the constructed meanings of individuals’ lives and worlds.

在教育、行政管理、健康、社会工作、咨询和商业等应用领域，基础定性研究是最常见的定性研究类型。它以建构主义方法为特点，研究人员旨在理解现象对相关参与者的意义。研究关注个体如何解释他们的经历、构建他们的世界，并赋予经历以意义。数据收集方法包括访谈、观察和文件分析。分析过程涉及识别数据中的重复模式，并根据研究人员对参与者观点的理解进行解释。基础定性研究的主要目标是揭示和解释个体生活和世界中构建的意义。

1.5.2. Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophy that underlies qualitative research, focusing on the experience itself and how it transforms into consciousness. It is interested in our “lived experience” rather than categorizing and simplifying phenomena. Phenomenological research is based on the assumption that there is an essence to shared experiences. The key task of a phenomenologist is to depict the essence or basic structure of a phenomenon, suspending prior beliefs to avoid interference. The study begins with a phenomenological interview, with the researcher exploring their own experiences to become aware of personal biases. The process of epoche, or refraining from judgment, is commonly undertaken by researchers. Other strategies unique to phenomenological research include phenomenological reduction, horizontalization, and imaginative variation. The end product is a composite description presenting the ’essence’ of the phenomenon. There are variations in how a phenomenological study is conducted.

现象学是一种哲学，它是定性研究的基础，关注的是经验本身以及它如何转化为意识。它对我们的"生活经验"感兴趣，而不是对现象进行分类和简化。现象学研究基于一个假设，即共享经验有其本质。现象学家的主要任务是描绘现象的本质或基本结构，暂停先前的信念以避免干扰。研究开始于现象学访谈，研究者探索自己的经验以意识到个人偏见。研究者通常会进行的过程包括epoche，即避免判断。现象学研究的其他独特策略包括现象学还原，横向化和想象变化。最终的产品是呈现现象’本质’的综合描述。现象学研究的进行方式有多种变化。

1.5.3. Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that has been used for a long time. It involves studying human society and culture by immersing oneself in the group being studied. Ethnographers spend a significant amount of time with the group, participating in their activities and building relationships with informants. The primary method of data collection is through participant observation, interviews, and analysis of documents and artifacts. Ethnography focuses on providing a thick description of the culture and interpreting the meanings participants attribute to their lives. It distinguishes between the emic perspective of insiders and the etic perspective of researchers. Ethnography is the second most common type of qualitative study and requires a clear understanding of the sociocultural patterns of the group under study.

民族志学是一种长期以来被广泛应用的定性研究方法。它涉及通过深入研究的群体中融入自身，来研究人类社会和文化。民族志学家与研究对象共度大量时间，参与他们的活动并与知情者建立关系。数据收集的主要方法包括参与观察、访谈以及文献和文物的分析。民族志学着重提供对文化的详细描述，并解释参与者赋予其生活的意义。它区分了内部人的emic视角和研究者的etic视角。民族志学是第二常见的定性研究类型，需要对研究对象所在群体的社会文化模式有清晰的理解。

1.5.4. Grounded Theory

Grounded Theory is a qualitative research method focused on building theory from the data. It was introduced by Glaser and Strauss in 1967. Unlike other qualitative approaches, the emphasis is on developing substantive theories that are specific to everyday situations. Grounded Theory is particularly useful for studying processes and how things change over time. Data collection involves interviews, observations, and analysis of various documentary materials. The process includes theoretical sampling and constant comparative analysis to identify patterns and develop categories. The ultimate goal is to create a grounded theory that explains the relationships among categories, properties, and hypotheses. It’s important to note that the term “grounded theory” is sometimes used loosely, causing confusion. A study should be labeled as a “grounded theory study” only when a substantive theory is derived from the data.

“基础理论（Grounded Theory）”是一种定性研究方法，其重点是从数据中建立理论。它由格拉泽（Glaser）和斯特劳斯（Strauss）于1967年提出。与其他定性方法不同，基础理论的重点是发展与日常情境相关的实质性理论。基础理论特别适用于研究过程以及事物随时间变化的情况。数据收集包括访谈、观察和各种文献资料的分析。研究过程包括理论抽样和不断比较分析，以确定模式并发展出类别。最终目标是创建一个基础理论，解释类别、属性和假设之间的关系。需要注意的是，“基础理论”这个术语有时使用不严谨，容易引起混淆。只有在从数据中得出实质性理论时，研究才应被标为“基础理论研究”。

1.5.5. Narrative Inquiry

Narrative Inquiry is a qualitative research method that focuses on using stories as data to understand human experiences and make sense of the world. Stories and narratives are fundamental to communication and sense-making. In this approach, first-person accounts of experiences, told in a story format with a beginning, middle, and end, serve as the primary data. Various terms like biography, life history, oral history, autoethnography, and autobiography may be used interchangeably with narratives. Hermeneutics, the study of interpretation, plays a crucial role in narrative inquiry, as it guides how texts are understood and interpreted within their historical and cultural contexts. Narrative analysis draws from hermeneutics and extends its scope to include interview transcripts, life history narratives, historical memoirs, and creative nonfiction. Different methodological approaches are employed to analyze stories in narrative inquiry, such as biographical analysis, psychological analysis focusing on personal issues and motivations, and linguistic (discourse) analysis examining language use, narrative structure, and nonverbal elements like intonation and pauses. Alongside the increasing popularity of narrative inquiry, questions arise regarding the best practices for presenting people’s stories, the researcher’s role in the process, and the validity and reliability of these narratives as sources of knowledge.

叙事研究是一种定性研究方法，专注于将故事作为数据来理解人类经历和认识世界。故事和叙述对于沟通和理解至关重要。在这种方法中，以开始、中间和结尾的故事形式讲述的个人经历成为主要数据。可以互换使用多种术语，如传记、生活史、口述历史、自传和自传体文学。 解释学，即解释研究，在叙事研究中起着至关重要的作用，它指导如何在历史和文化背景中理解和解释文本。叙事分析借鉴了解释学，并扩展了其范围，包括访谈记录、生活史叙述、历史回忆录和创意非虚构作品。 在叙事研究中，采用不同的方法论方法来分析故事，例如传记分析、关注个人问题和动机的心理分析，以及语言（话语）分析，研究语言使用、叙事结构和语言之外的元素，如语调和停顿。 随着叙事研究日益受到欢迎，人们对于如何最好地呈现人们的故事、研究者在过程中的角色以及这些叙述作为知识来源的有效性和可靠性等问题也逐渐浮现。

1.5.6. Qualitative Case Study

Qualitative case study is a unique form of qualitative research that involves in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system. It shares common characteristics with other qualitative research methods, such as the search for meaning and understanding, the researcher as the primary instrument, an inductive investigative approach, and richly descriptive outcomes. The defining characteristic of a case study is the delimitation of the object of study, known as the case, which can be an individual, program, group, institution, community, or policy. Unlike other qualitative research methods, the unit of analysis, rather than the topic of investigation, characterizes a case study. The focus is on a specific sample or bounded system, rather than the entire population. It is essential to establish boundaries and have a clearly defined sample for a study to be considered a case study. Comparative case studies, involving multiple cases or subunits, are also commonly conducted. Overall, qualitative case study research offers a distinct approach to understanding and analyzing bounded systems, emphasizing depth and specificity in the investigation.

定性案例研究是一种独特的定性研究形式，涉及对有界系统的深入描述和分析。它与其他定性研究方法有共同的特点，如寻求意义和理解，研究者作为主要工具，归纳性的调查方法，以及丰富的描述性结果。案例研究的定义特征是对研究对象的限定，也就是案例，可以是个人、程序、团体、机构、社区或政策。 与其他定性研究方法不同，案例研究的特点是分析单位，而不是调查主题。焦点在于特定的样本或有界系统，而不是整个人口。一个研究要被视为案例研究，就必须建立边界并有一个明确定义的样本。比较案例研究，涉及多个案例或子单位，也常常被进行。 总的来说，定性案例研究提供了一种独特的方法来理解和分析有界系统，强调调查的深度和特异性。

1.5.7. When the Types of Qualitative Research Overlap.

This passage discusses the overlap and diversity in types of qualitative research. While there are common types, many others exist, including combinations of types, such as an ethnographic case study. The approach to qualitative research is influenced by the theoretical framework and the study’s purpose. There’s no single correct way to define or describe a qualitative study, and it’s up to the researcher to justify their approach based on the literature and their research intentions. This requires a thorough examination of various literature sources.

这篇文章讨论了定性研究类型的重叠和多样性。虽然有一些常见的类型，但还存在许多其他类型，包括类型的组合，如民族志案例研究。定性研究的方法受到理论框架和研究目的的影响。没有单一正确的方式来定义或描述定性研究，这取决于研究者如何根据文献和他们的研究意图来证明他们的方法。这需要对各种文献来源进行彻底的检查。

1.6. Designing a qualitative study

This chapter will discuss the process of designing a qualitative study, including selecting a research topic, refining it into a research problem, and understanding the role of a theoretical framework and literature review. It will also address the debate over the reliability and validity of qualitative research due to the existence of a fixed qualitative paradigm. The chapter emphasizes that these steps are interactive processes. The selection of the study sample will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

本章将讨论设计定性研究的过程，包括选择研究主题，将其细化为研究问题，以及理解理论框架和文献综述的作用。同时，也将讨论由于存在固定的定性范式，定性研究的可靠性和有效性引发的争论。本章强调这些步骤是互动的过程。研究样本的选择将在后续章节中讨论。

1.6.1. Selecting a topic

The selection of a research topic can be influenced by various factors such as personal experiences, interests in a particular field, current social and political issues, literature, previous research or theory in the area. It can be derived from daily life experiences, workplace scenarios, or personal interests. Topics can also be inspired by changes in the environment, social and political issues, or existing literature and theories. However, the most important factor in choosing a research topic is genuine curiosity and interest in finding answers to the questions posed. This enthusiasm will drive the research process more than any other factor. Once the topic is chosen, it needs to be shaped into a research problem.

研究主题的选择可以受到各种因素的影响，如个人经验、对某一领域的兴趣、当前的社会和政治问题、文献、该领域的先前研究或理论。它可以源于日常生活经验、工作场景或个人兴趣。主题也可以受到环境变化、社会和政治问题，或现有文献和理论的启发。然而，选择研究主题最重要的因素是对寻找问题答案的真正好奇心和兴趣。这种热情将比任何其他因素更能推动研究过程。一旦选择了主题，就需要将其塑造成一个研究问题。

1.6.2. The Research Problem

The research problem is the core of any research study and is the issue that the researcher seeks to address. It starts with a broad area of interest, which is then narrowed down to a specific question. This question identifies a gap in existing knowledge, which the research aims to fill. The problem statement, which outlines the research problem, is a carefully crafted essay that lays out the logic of the research study. It includes three components: the context of the study, the gap in the knowledge base, and the significant problem to address. The problem statement concludes with the purpose statement and research questions, which guide the study.

研究问题是任何研究的核心，是研究者试图解决的问题。它从一个广泛的兴趣领域开始，然后缩小到一个具体的问题。这个问题识别出现有知识中的一个空白，研究的目标就是填补这个空白。问题陈述，概述了研究问题，是一个精心制作的文章，阐述了研究的逻辑。它包括三个部分：研究的背景，知识库中的空白，以及需要解决的重要问题。问题陈述以目的陈述和研究问题结束，这些问题指导了研究。

1.6.3. The Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework is the underlying structure of a study, based on the concepts or theories the study is built upon. It is often difficult to specify in qualitative research, which focuses on inductively building concepts, hypotheses, and theories. The theoretical framework can be identified through the disciplinary orientation and the literature related to the topic of interest. It supports the problem of the study, research questions, data collection, analysis techniques, and interpretation of findings. The theoretical framework can be seen as a set of interlocking frames, including the theoretical framework itself, the problem statement, and the purpose of the study. Reviewing relevant literature is necessary to identify the theoretical framework. The literature review provides the foundation for contributing to the knowledge base and demonstrates how the study deviates from what has already been studied.

理论框架是研究的基础结构，它基于研究所依赖的概念或理论。在定性研究中，这通常很难明确，因为定性研究关注的是归纳构建概念、假设和理论。理论框架可以通过学科定位和与研究主题相关的文献来确定。它支持研究问题、研究问题、数据收集、分析技术和研究结果的解释。理论框架可以被看作是一组互锁的框架，包括理论框架本身、问题陈述和研究目的。回顾相关文献是确定理论框架所必需的。文献综述为增加知识基础提供了基础，并展示了研究如何偏离已经研究过的内容。

1.6.4. Conducting and writing up a literature review

The process of conducting and writing a literature review begins with defining the scope of the search based on the author’s familiarity with the topic and the clarity of the research problem. The author should identify key studies, theories, and issues related to the topic, and decide which full-length resources to obtain based on the author’s importance, the date of the work, the relevance of the issue tested, and the quality of the source. It’s crucial to record bibliographic references accurately and efficiently. Knowing when to stop reviewing literature is also important, and can be determined by familiarity with all relevant literature or a subjective understanding of the literature. A literature review is a narrative essay that synthesizes, critiques, and integrates key thinking and results on the topic. The author’s opinion on the research and literature is a vital component. The literature review is beneficial in situating the study, making decisions post-research, and shaping the problem statement.

进行和撰写文献综述的过程首先从根据作者对主题的熟悉程度和研究问题的明确性来定义搜索范围开始。作者应该识别与主题相关的关键研究、理论和问题，并根据作者的重要性、作品的日期、测试问题的相关性和来源的质量来决定获取哪些全文资源。准确高效地记录参考文献是至关重要的。知道何时停止查阅文献也很重要，这可以通过熟悉所有相关文献或对文献的主观理解来确定。文献综述是一篇综合、批评和整合主题关键思想和结果的叙述性文章。作者对研究和文献的观点是一个重要的组成部分。文献综述有助于定位研究，做出研究后的决策，并塑造问题陈述。